Applying the model to the Japanese context, the mainstream society consists of interdependent full-time workers who value group harmony and seniority ( Markus and Kitayama, 1991 Kitayama et al., 2016). On the other hand, those with a marginalized orientation in the periphery are those who reject the mainstream Japanese cultural values but do not possess a different cultural identity, such as Freeter, NEET, and Hikikomori ( Norasakkunkit and Uchida, 2011). The word “Freeter” in Japanese describes those who engage in part-time jobs only and do not seek a full-time, lifelong employment. “NEET” was first coined by Bynner and Parsons (2002) to describe those who are “not in education, employment, or training” in the UK. In the extreme case, “Hikikomori” (social withdrawal), a term first used in the academic field in 1986, describes people who avoid social interactions even with their family members, shutting themselves in their room for months or years ( Kitao, 1986). The occurrence of Freeter, NEET, and Hikikomori has been increasing, and one explanation proposed was the economic recession and globalization in Japan, paired with the institutional reluctance to reform at the cost of decreasing young adults' motivation to participate in mainstream society ( Toivonen et al., 2011). Following the explanation, this paper aims to elucidate the motivational responses of students and Freeters under different job-hunting prospects evoked by priming. The prevalence of Freeter, NEET, and Hikikomori has risen in Japan over the past few decades. The relationship between these psychological tendencies and actually becoming marginalized across cultures is discussed.The number of articles related to Hikikomori in two major Japanese newspapers, Asahi Shinbun and Yomiuri Shinbun, has grown from merely 4 in 1985 to 794 in 2005 ( Ishikawa, 2007). The results suggested that NHR is related to psychological tendencies common in the marginalized segments of society. Study 2 investigated and confirmed the validity of the scale by examining NHR differences between occupational groups. Based on this idea, we identified three related risk factors in our NHR spectrum scale: (1) Freeter lifestyle preference, which in Japan refers to the tendency to consciously choose to not work despite job availabilities, (2) a lack of self-competence, and (3) having unclear ambitions for the future (Study 1).
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In this study, we developed a NEET-Hikikomori Risk Factors (NHR) scale that treats NEET/Hikikomori not as a set of distinct diagnoses, but as a spectrum of psychological tendencies associated with the risk of being marginalized in society. Specifically, we believe that both NEET and Hikikomori show psychological tendencies that deviate from those governed by mainstream cultural attitudes, values, and behaviors, with the difference between NEET and Hikikomori being largely a matter of degree. Though the behavioral symptoms of NEET and Hikikomori can be differentiated, some commonalities in psychological features can be found. The phenomena of NEET/Hikikomori (occupational/social withdrawal) have attracted global attention in recent years. An increasing number of young people are becoming socially and economically marginalized in Japan under economic stagnation and pressures to be more globally competitive in a post-industrial economy.